Understanding Scaled Scores on Standardized Tests

Scaled scores are a type of exam score. They are commonly used by testing companies that administer high stakes exams, such as admissions, certification and licensure exams. Scaled scores are also used for K-12 Common Core testing and other exams that assess student skills and evaluate learning progress. Raw Scores vs. Scaled Scores The first step to understanding scaled scores is to learn how they differ from raw scores. A raw score represents the number of exam questions you answer correctly. For example, if an exam has 100 questions, and you get 80 of them correct, your raw score is 80. Your percent-correct score, which is a type of raw score, is 80%, and your grade is a B-. A scaled score is a raw score that has been adjusted and converted to a standardized scale. If your raw score is 80 (because you got 80 out of 100 questions correct), that score is adjusted and converted into a scaled score. Raw scores can be converted linearly or nonlinearly. Scaled Score Example The ACT is an example of an exam that uses linear transformation to convert raw scores to scaled scores. The following conversation chart shows how raw scores from each section of the ACT are transformed into scaled scores.   Raw Score English Raw Score Math Raw Score Reading Raw Score Science Scaled Score 75 60 40 40 36 72-74 58-59 39 39 35 71 57 38 38 34 70 55-56 37 37 33 68-69 54 35-36 - 32 67 52-53 34 36 31 66 50-51 33 35 30 65 48-49 32 34 29 63-64 45-47 31 33 28 62 43-44 30 32 27 60-61 40-42 29 30-31 26 58-59 38-39 28 28-29 25 56-57 36-37 27 26-27 24 53-55 34-35 25-26 24-25 23 51-52 32-33 24 22-23 22 48-50 30-31 22-23 21 21 45-47 29 21 19-20 20 43-44 27-28 19-20 17-18 19 41-42 24-26 18 16 18 39-40 21-23 17 14-15 17 36-38 17-20 15-16 13 16 32-35 13-16 14 12 15 29-31 11-12 12-13 11 14 27-28 8-10 11 10 13 25-26 7 9-10 9 12 23-24 5-6 8 8 11 20-22 4 6-7 7 10 18-19 - - 5-6 9 15-17 3 5 - 8 12-14 - 4 4 7 10-11 2 3 3 6 8-9 - - 2 5 6-7 1 2 - 4 4-5 - - 1 3 2-3 - 1 - 2 0-1 0 0 0 1 Source: ACT.org The Equating Process The scaling process creates a base scale that serves as a reference for another process known as equating. The equating process is necessary to account for differences between multiple versions of the same test. Although test makers try to keep the difficulty level of a test the same from one version to the next, differences are inevitable. Equating allows the test maker to statistically adjust scores so that the average performance on version one of the test is equal to average performance on version two of the test, version three of the test and so on. After undergoing both scaling and equating, scaled scores should be interchangeable and easily comparable no matter which version of the test was taken.   Equating Example Lets look at an example to see how the equating process can impact scaled scores on standardized tests.  Imagine that say you and a friend are taking the SAT. You will both be taking the exam at the same test center, but you will be taking the test in January, and your friend will be taking the test in February. You have different testing dates, and there is no guarantee that you will both take the same version of the SAT. You may see one form of the test, while your friend sees another. Although both tests have similar content, the questions are not exactly the same. After taking the SAT, you and your friend get together and compare your results. You both got a raw score of 50 on the math section, but your scaled score is 710 and your friends scaled score is 700. Your pal wonders what happened since both of you got the same number of questions correct. But the explanation is pretty simple; you each took a different version of the test, and your version was more difficult than his. To get the same scaled score on the SAT, he would have needed to answer more questions correctly than you. Test makers that use an equating process use a different formula to create a unique scale for each version of the exam. This means that there is no one raw-to-scale-score conversion chart that can be used for every version of the exam. That is why, in our previous example, a raw score of 50 was converted into 710 on one day and 700 on another day. Keep this in mind as you are taking practice tests and using conversion charts to transform your raw score into a scaled score. Purpose of Scaled Scores Raw scores are definitely easier to calculate than scaled scores. But testing companies want to make sure that test scores can be fairly and accurately compared even if test takers take different versions, or forms, of the test on different dates. Scaled scores allow for accurate comparisons and ensure that people who took a more difficult test are not penalized, and people who took a less difficult test are not given an unfair advantage.

An Authoritarian Personality Is A Personality Type

An authoritarian personality is a personality type in which an individual inhibits prejudice. It is said to be caused by a variety of certain circumstances, which were determined by Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswik, Levinson, and Sanford during the year 1950. Through many tests and analysis of over 2,000 respondents from middle-class Whites to inmates of San Quentin State Prison, they were able to figure out the characteristics associated with authoritarian personality. The characteristics include compliance in beliefs of conventional values, not having criticism towards authority and complying to authority, and concern regarding power and toughness. Also, their intolerance is related to aggression towards people that do not oblige to authority or conventional norms. Researchers believe that a rigid upbringing leads those who have an authoritarian personality to treat others like how they were treated. The Bogardus scale was created by Emory Bogardus in 1968 to measure social distance empi rically. The scale determines the desire of people in association with different racial and ethnic groups during certain social situations. After 70 years of administering the test, certain patterns have formed. White Americans and northern Europeans are said to be on the top of the hierarchy. While, eastern and southern Europeans are at a greater social distance and racial minorities are on the bottom. Color-blind racism has been known as laissez-faire or post-racialism or aversiveShow MoreRelatedAuthoritarian Personality Is A Personality Type971 Words   |  4 PagesAuthoritarian Personality is a personality type in which an individual inhibits prejudice It is caused by a variety of certain circumstances, which were narrowed down by Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswik, Levinson, and Sanford during the year 1950. Through many tests and analysis of over 2,000 respondents from middle classes Whites to inmates of San Quentin State Prison, they were able to figure out the characteristics associ ated with authoritarian personality. The characteristics include compliance in beliefsRead MoreOutline the Similarities and Differences Between Adorno Et Al.’S (1950) and Altemeyer’s (1981) Approach to Authoritarianism1048 Words   |  5 Pagesprone to such levels of violence and hate in the name of political ideology. The ‘Authoritarian Personality’ was a concept suggested in 1950 by German sociologist Theodor Adorno and colleagues following their research identifying the personality traits believed to allow an individual to be bias towards and follow a fascist ideology. Although initially met with great excitement, over time the authoritarian personality alone was seen, by many psychologists, as not sufficient to explain the potentialRead MoreOrdinary People Analysis1069 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿The Authoritarian, the Permissive and the Authoritative Ordinary People Parents are perhaps the greatest influences in a person life. They mentor us, shape us and model us into the type of people they would be proud of. This is no different in the movie, Ordinary People which portrays a family of three struggling through a tragedy and its byproducts. The movie highlights the three different parenting styles through the two parents, Beth and Calvin, of Conrad. Furthermore the movie underscoresRead MorePrejudice: A Problem With an Unknown Origin Essay889 Words   |  4 Pages There are numerous theories, but the three likely one were discovered by three separate groups of researchers.The researchers findings are discussed in â€Å"The Evolution of Prejudice- Biological† the idea prejudice comes from evolution, â€Å"Authoritarian Personality AJC- psychological† the idea it is an effect of childhood, and â€Å"Basis of most prejudices is ignorance† the idea it comes from our societies’s influences. In the article â€Å"The Evolution of Prejudice- Biological† Neha Mahajan and researchersRead MoreAnna Wintour Assignment Essay1355 Words   |  6 Pagesadopted her stern and tough working attitude from her father who was known as ‘Chilly Charlie’ within the media world due to his cold demeanour quite like his daughter who is known as ‘Nuclear Wintour’. 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Base Your Answer on Theoretical Concepts and Techniques Presented in Class.1697 Words   |  7 Pagesanswer on theoretical concepts and techniques presented in class. | There are many different ways in which a hypnotic screed can be personalised to suit the individual that they are being tailored for; just as there are many different types of personalities and experiences to be taken into account when doing so. Because in hypnotherapy we are working with the clients subconscious mind we need to make sure that it is as accessible as is possible, and there are a number of ways of doing this. Read MoreChild s Interaction With Caregivers Essay1239 Words   |  5 PagesA child’s interaction with caregivers can affect them for the rest of their lives. Attachment and parenting styles play a role in a child’s personality, social, and cognitive skills. It is important for adults to understand the severity of attachment and positive relationships with children. Attachment is the foundation for a strong relationship between caregivers and children. Children usually become attached to the person who cares for them most often during their first year of life. There isRead MoreLeadership Styles And Its Impact On Society1323 Words   |  6 Pagesin the last several years in order to keep up with the latest trends. Years ago there was only one style of leadership that shaped America. It was Authoritarian. In order to understand how leadership styles have changed, all leadership’s styles must first be explained. Styles of Leadership- Authoritarian, Democratic, and Laissez-Faire â€Å"Authoritarian: perceive others as needing direction, needs to control, and believes that others are inherently lazy (Theory X). On the positive side, it is efficient

Management in Construction Contracting †Free Samples to Students

Question: Discuss about the Management in Construction Contracting. Answer: Introduction In order to reduce traffic congestion and improve vehicular traffic throughput the NSW government has awarded a contract to Westlink; the project entails expanding the M5 Motorway, M4 Motorway, and M5 East from the present 4 lane highway to an eight lane motorway. The project entails building interchanges and underpasses to enhance traffic flow, and especially move heavy commercial vehicles underground from the Parramatta road. The project will also stimulate the revitalization of neighborhoods. The project entails expanding 33 km of road and is expected to be completed in 2023; it is expected to act as a future gold standard on how to manage public projects. The project involves multiple stakeholders, including three main project contractors that have merged to form a single entity (Westlink) with two consultants and three design companies. The Australian Government will provide a concession of $ 1.5 billion, in partnership with the NSW government so that phase 1 and 2 of the three phased project can be undertaken concurrently. The project has enormous organizational as well as operational challenges. This paper reviews the project challenges and deliverables and proposes, based on a weighted method, on the best way to undertake the project. The scope of this paper is to propose the most suitable project management and delivery method, by proposing, with justification, the best project delivery model, the best financial contract type, and the best procurement method; with respect the the unique challenges of the project and the required deliverables. The paper will then draw conclusions at the end. Project delivery method There are three methods in which the project can be delivered; namely; design-build (DB), design-bid-build (DBB) and contract management at risk (CM@R). The DB model entails the owner (in this case, the NSW government) selects and signs a contract with the DB team; the DB team is usually a joint venture between different contractors that have their own designers and led by a general contractor. The DB team makes the designs based on discussions with the owner. After the design is done and the owner makes approvals, the DB team is then responsible for the entire construction and delivery of the project, as well as coordination of design and construction (Cushman Loulakis, 2016). In the DBB model, the project owner procures the services of an architect/ designer, who designs the entire project, with specifications for drawings, design, and the contract packages. The entire package is presented to contractors (general contractors), who then bid for the project; the general contractors usually engage several subcontractors to bid for the project, and usually, the lowest bidder gets the job. The selected general contractor, working with their subcontractors, then become responsible for building the project based on the design and there is increased control over the project by the project owner (Warhoe, 2013). In the CM@R model, there is a construction manager who makes a commitment to deliver a project at a GMP (guaanteed maximum price). The applicant for the project designates a design engineer and a firm to undrtake CM@R in a discrete and separate design and construction contract; the CM@R offers advice related to construction management during the development of design. When the GMP is agreed upon, the CM@R becomes the general contractor during the entire construction project and is used when the benefits of design-build benefits are desired, as well as contractual control over project design and definition (Clough et al., 2015). however, for the NSW road construction project, it is essential that various criteria based on the unique project conditions and requirement s be used to determine the best approach, using a weighted scoring mechanism. The relevant criteria are listed in the table below, as well as the weights and scores assigned to them, as guided by the project requirements and deliverables. The criteria have been used in the context of the project challenges and circumstances, as well as the deliverables (Dey, 2006). From the scoring and weighting, the most suitable project delivery model is the design-build; this is because based on the selected criteria and the nature of the project, it is the most suitable model. The project structure is such that the owner accepts less risk and the team that will undertake the construction is a consortium with its in-house team of designers, consultants, as well as subcontractors (Han, 2007). The general contractor (Westlink) is a joint venture; the project is very huge and complex and requires experienced contractors with sufficient technical ability in-house for managing design and construction. Further, having to manage traffic flow during expansion and construction means known site factors as a criteria is given a higher weight, along with experience, in-house technical ability, project size, delivery speed and budget that can best be met under the DB model. The requirement to have an effective management structure that is sustainable, the less direct involvement by the project owner and the complexity of the project implies that DB is the most suitable approach, based on the scoring and weighting of the criteria (Edgerton, 2009). The above analysis gave DB a cobined score of 811 (highest), followed by CM@Risk (657), and lastly, DBB at 618. Financial Contract Type This pertains to the M4 long term financing structure and should be based on cash flows; it has to take into consideration the risks and costs for financing (handfinger, n.d). Already, the Government together with the NSW, have provided a concession of $ 1.5 billion, which is just 8.9% of the entire contract sum. The project will be delivered in three stages; the concession will enable the first two stages to be undertaken concurrently. There are three main forms of financial contracts relevant to the M4 road expansion and construction; the lump sum financial type, the cost plus fixed fee contract, and the guaranteed maximum price. The lump sum contract entails making a single payment for a contract of the stipulated sum. This is a basic financial contract in which the contractors agree on a fixed amount for undertaking th construction project and the owner/ employer agrees to pay the agree upon lump sum once the works have been completed (Hugill, 2005). The Guaranteed Maximum Price Contract (GMP) refers to a contract type where the contractor gets compensated for the costs they incur during construction, plus a fixed fee, which is governed by a maximum ceiling price. Any cost overruns is the responsibility of the contractor unless a formal change has been undertaken to increase the GMP. Any savings accrued from cost under-runs or savings have to be returned to the project owner (Carmichael, 2000). The cost plus fixed fee contract is a contract type in which the costs incurred by the contractor are reimbursed by the project owner. It also includes a payment for the contractor which is negotiated as a fixed fee at the start of the project. The fee remains fixed and does not vary in relation to the actual cost; however, the contract fee can vary or be adjusted due to changes in the works to be undertaken under the terms of the contract (Kelleher Abernathy, 2010). The criteria selected for doing the weighting are based on the unique circumstances of the contract. The most important thing is the budget; the maximum amount that is available to undertake the construction project. This is also given a high weight because it has a huge and direct bearing on the entire financial contract; it cannot be exceeded. The possibility for adjustments is also given a high weight because it dictates who will ultimately absorb the risk of adjustments in contract sum. The delivery model is another criteria used to determine the financial contract type to be used; the financial contract must be consistent, and complementary to the chosen project delivery model. The structure of the project also has a bearing on the financial contract type; the M$ expansion project is very complex in terms of size, scope, and duration, as well as the number of subcontractors. External factors and how can influence project cost is also an important criteria; factors such as inflation, weather and environmental factors, and unexpected incidentals can have a significant impact on the project cost, and so it is also used as a criteria. Based on the criteria and other factors, scores were assigned to the three different contract types in reference to the project situation and inherent merits/ demerits of the different financial contract types. Lump sum contract type gets a low score on influence of external factors, the project structure, and the delivery model because these factors can change significantly. Further, the budget gets a high score since it means the agreed amount is what will be paid (Chan et al., 2011). The project structure also get a low score since it is to be done in phases and the budget is so huge that it is not possible for the contractor to raise the amount of close to the total amount to undertake the project to be paid after doing the works. For these reasons, the lump sum had the lowest weighted score of 504. The GMP was also scored in relation to the criteria chosen. Possibility of adjustments and external factors influence such as weather get very low scores since any adjustments will be borne by the contractor (Chan et al., 2011, hence it gets a total weighted score of 602. For the cost plus fee, the contract type is suitable for the contract delivery type and the criteria used for assessment, and gets a high score of 780. The cost plus fee allows costs to be identified early and the contractor has greater control and reduced risk from changes (Rodriguez2017) Procurement method The procurement method is also an important aspect of construction projects because it is impacted by the type of financial contract, the project budget and delivery model; it must also be consistent with the two aspects of construction. The procurement methods under consideration here include Competitive, Negotiated and Best Value. Competitive procurement are procedures used to develop procurement using bidding where would be supplies quote their prices and the most competitive (lowest price for the highest value) is selected. This offers a fair chance to all players while also enabling transparency. Best value procurement pertains to using other factors apart from price, such as expertise and quality in selecting vendors. Negotiated procurement on the other hand pertains to vendor selection without formal price competition or advertising and suppliers are selected to the best advantage of government, though other factors such as price and quality are also considered (Kelleher Aber nathy, 2010). to determine the best model, various criteria were identified and weighted. The criteria used include assurances that quaity will be achieved and competitive (lowest price) attained. The procurement model must also be suitable for the project delivery and financing model, as well as reducing/ minimizing risk. These were computed in a table as shown below; The scoring was doe based on the criteria and the project unique challenges and issues; the competitive procurement had high scores in terms of assuring quality as the NSW intends the project to act as a benchmark for future projects. Further, it has a high score for cost as it ensures transparency and lowest price for the highest quality. Further, it minimizes risks such as failure to deliver by suppliers because they are evaluated technically. The negotiated model scores very low on cost and averagely on suitability for the delivery model and financial contract as well as on risk; there is a risk that negotiations will not provide the best quality products. The best value model scores highest on quality and minimized risk, but just above average on other criteria since the project is complex and cost I a major factor that best value does not consider as a priority. Based on these, the competitive procurement model, that just edges the best value procurement method, is chosen as bei ng the most suitable for the M4 road expansion project Conclusion Having reviewed the contract conditions and terms and unique circumstances, as well as criteria for the project delivery model, financial contract type, and procurement; this paper concludes that the best delivery model is design build; the most suitable financial contract type is cost plus fee, and the most suitable procurement method is the competitive model. References Carmichael, D. G. (2000). Contracts and international project management. Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema. Chan, Daniel W. M., Chan, Albert P. C., Lam, Tsun-ip Patrick, Wong, James M. W. (2011). An empirical survey of the motives and benefits of adopting guaranteed maximum price and target cost contracts in construction. (International journal of project management, July 2011, v. 29, no. 5, p. 577-590.) Elsevier. Chan, Daniel W. M., Chan, Albert P. C., Lam, Tsun-ip Patrick, Yeung, Fai-yip, Chan, Joseph H. L. (2011). Risk ranking and analysis in target cost contracts: empirical evidence from the construction industry. (International journal of project management, Aug. 2011, v. 29, no. 6, p. 751-763.) Elsevier. Clough, R. H., Sears, G. A., Sears, S. K., Segner, R. O., Rounds, J. L. (2015). Construction contracting: A practical guide to company management. Hoboken, New Jersey : John Wiley and Sons, Inc Cushman, R. F. Loulakis, M. C. (2016). Design-Build Contracting Handbook.New York; Wolters Kluwer (Firm). Edgerton, W. W. (2009). Recommended contract practices for underground construction. Littleton, Colo: Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. Dey, P. K. (January 01, 2006). Integrated project evaluation and selection using multiple-attribute decision-making technique. International Journal of Production Economics, 103, 1, 90-103. Han, S. H. (June 01, 2007). Predicting Profit Performance for Selecting Candidate International Construction Projects. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 133, 6, 425- 436. Handfinger, A. P. (n.d.). Understanding Contractual Pricing Arrangements Fixed Price, Cost- Plus, and Guaranteed Maximum Price. Retrieved August 26, 2017, from https://www.pecklaw.com/images/uploads/communications/Client_Alert- Understanding_Contractual_Pricing_Arrangements.pdf Hugill, D. (2005). Financial management in construction contracting. London: Blackwell Publishing. Kelleher, T. J., Abernathy, T. E. (2010). Smith, Currie Hancock's Federal government construction contracts: A practical guide for the industry professional. Hoboken, N.J: John Wiley Sons. Rodriguez, J. (2017, April 27). Guide to Cost Plus Contracts Plus More Variations. Retrieved August 26, 2017, from https://www.thebalance.com/all-about-cost-plus-contract-basics-plus- 4-more-options-844913 Warhoe, S. P. (2013). Applying earned value management to design-bid -build projects to assess productivity disruption: A system dynamics approach. Doctoral Thesis; Skema Business School.

Stakeholder Analysis free essay sample

Stakeholder Analysis Picture the face of a student receiving a research paper, not to thrilling, some will start sooner than others but everyone must start their research papers somehow and some way. Google means â€Å"to search† and now in days it can be used for browsing, personal computing, email, and broadband networking (Krazit). Years ago when internet and Google did not exist students actually went to the library to not only study but to get and look through books. That is how students got their research for papers, while students today use the internet and mostly Google. Now when students go to the library they use it for a study area and internet access. Walking into the library at Colorado State University, in Fort Collins, you will find students with more computers than books. Libraries have more reliable sources but most students only use their resources if they are required by a teacher. We will write a custom essay sample on Stakeholder Analysis or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Google is a quicker and easier than making time to go to the library and find a book. Even though libraries are changing to keep up with the new technology, Google is changing faster. Students are now reading on iPhones, kindles, and Google search engines when before they were using printed books (Glazer). The libraries were used so students could get books for research. These days, librarians have seen more online searches in the library than people actually searching for books (Hafner). How much longer until Google takes over the libraries purpose of using their books for research? Stakeholders who could partake in this question could be librarians, Google investors, current college students, and college alumni’s. Librarians may be one of the top stakeholders for the changes in student’s research ways. The librarians want to help the students and make sure that the information they are using is reliable. They believe that students must use library books and databases instead of Google (Mantel). Librarians thin that Google is not a good source; they mainly say this because they want students to use their resources. Like the other stakeholders librarians know technology is changing and trends are following so in order to stay up to date they need to change too (Timpson). Librarians need to make changes like making their research options more convenient to students. Unlike the other stakeholders librarians have to go against Google because they want students using the library. If Google takes over libraries researching purposes then librarians could possibly lose their jobs. Google investors could be another stakeholder because with Google changing and becoming more reliable they have a chance to make more money. Google investors want to make money and they want to show that Google is a reliable source for students. They believe that the little advertising they have done has helped them save money and get the word out (Krazit). They assume that there are a lot of people out there who rely on them for information. 83% of students begin searches using search engines† (Timpson). Unlike librarians, they want the students to use Google so they can make more money, they do not care about their education. They also know that they still need to make changes and become more than just a search engine, just like other stakeholders. Another stakeholder would be college alumni’s because they did not have internet as an option, so you can compare how much h as changed. Students wanted to go to the library to research or maybe even hang out. They believed that the library was to check out books for research.